“I am currently in week 111 of my journey through The Great Books of the Western World.  Now reading On Liberty by Mill.”
—Stephen

Two weeks ago I took my infant daughter to an Easter egg hunt hosted by a family down the street. After the festivities I struck up a conversation with the man whose wife organized the activity and discovered that he had graduated with a Ph.D. in philosophy and was currently writing a book on modernity. I tried to describe my reading plan of the Great Conversation in a few fumbled sentences and was promptly invited inside the house for a conversation that lasted the better part of the afternoon as we discussed everything from Rousseau and Hobbes to Hume and Kant. In the space of a few hours he declared that he was “not a very nice person,” that he was mostly “just some quack sitting in his basement,” and that he “would rather have a smart enemy than a dumb friend.” The role of the novel entered the conversation and he labeled the novel as “nothing more than a grandiose fable.” “Melville,” he said, “Is the only great American novelist. I discount those who say anything about Twain.”

“Surely,” I said, “Twain is worthwhile if only because of the culture he captures and preserves in The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn.”

“If you’re a kid, sure. As an adult, I have no intention of returning to Twain. Melville, though, I’ve read three times. He is like Dostoyevsky in his depth.”

Recently we conversed again and as the subject of God came up, my neighbor pointedly declared that he was not an atheist. I asked how he was able to keep atheism at bay after reading what Lucretius had to say about the immortality of the soul. “I do not,” he explained, “believe in the immortality of the soul or any of that nonsense. I am a Christian, but only because I believe Christianity needs defended.” As the conversation progressed, it became clear that this was not to be a typical discussion of apologetics.

“You see,” my neighbor said, as he refilled his stem-less wine glass with the now half-empty bottle of Black Opal Shiraz, “Modernity has delivered a crushing blow to religion through its declaration that God is dead. God is dead, modernity has proven this. Modernity has spent far too much time laughing at Christianity and it is time to defend the religion.”

“And you believe Christianity to be worth defending?” I asked, finding a pause in his stream of thought.

“Well it certainly is not being defended by the evangelicals—they’re fighting the wrong battle. They’re caught in the literal interpretation debate when the Bible itself says not to take it literally. Here you have a text that was written before the very idea of historical fact came into being and then you have idiots defending it based on historical fact. They can talk about archaeology all they want, but it misses the point. Then they go off and make these creation museums with men riding dinosaurs and they make God look like a fool. I do not like it when men make God look like a fool.”

“So your reason for defending the religion is simply because it is not being defended well?”

“Look,” he said, “It needs to be defended because it has, at its core, a cool idea. I mean here you have a religion that involves God, one God, becoming human. Socrates made it clear in his dialogue with Euthyphro that polytheism is idiotic—what if the gods disagree? Doesn’t that negate the very idea of God if there are multiple ones? Monotheism is the only logical religion in light of Plato’s Dialogues. And of the monotheistic religions, Christianity has the coolest idea. If God can become man, then doesn’t it innately suggest that man can become God? If the word takes flesh through God descending, then it suggests that man can ascend to God. I like that.”

“Where does Christianity suggest that sort of transcendence?”

“This is not evangelical Christianity. You don’t have to be an evangelical to be a Christian—you have to separate yourself from Aristotle’s view that Fable is tied to poetry. Release that. Fable now has a philosophical, or at least much broader meaning. This is the mythos. This is why I defend the religion.”

“Normally,” I said, “When people defend Christianity, it boils down to a fear for the afterlife. This is unlike most defenses of the religion I’ve heard—it sounds as if you are defending it merely to spite modernity.”

“No one knows about the afterlife, and besides that, what does it matter? Death doesn’t scare me. Boredom terrifies me more than death—I’d rather die than be bored. And this society bores me. Modernity, in killing God, has killed our souls. Without a soul, we no longer have a mythos, a culture. With no mythos, we have given ourselves over to consumerism. And I loath consumerism.”

“You’re preaching to the choir now,” I said.

“I’m not suggesting we hate or despise the consumers, but rather hate consumerism which has taken them over. The demon of consumerism, to borrow an idea from our lost mythos.”

“Now you’re sounding evangelical with the ‘love the sinner, hate the sin’ concept.”

“Exactly,” he said, “‘Love the sinner, hate the sin’—and the sin is consumerism. It brings me back to my defense of Christianity. Why do I defend it? Because we need mythos, and Christianity can bring it back.”

“If modernity killed the soul, how can mythos return?”

“Modernity killed the soul in part by accident. In killing God, the soul died along with it, because religion is tied to art and beauty and culture. Modernity is here to stay, and although it will eventually be replaced just as everything that has come before it from the Hellenistic world to pre-modernity, it is here for now. But in defending Christianity, we change the outgrowth of modernity. We get rid of consumerism. If we can fix that, we can foster the return of mythos. We need our mythos, and I defend Christianity because I believe Christianity can bring back the mythos we have lost. Without art, without culture, we are nothing.”

{ 1 comment }

Happiness and Trash Stickers: Re-Thinking the Golden Rule in Kant

by Stephen James Carter on April 16, 2012

Early in “The Metaphysic of Morals” Immanuel Kant critiques the pursuit of happiness. If happiness is the “be all end all” of human existence, then human existence is fleeting and indefinite: “although every man wishes to attain [happiness], yet he never can say definitely and consistently what it is that he really wishes and wills.” Kant suggests that happiness is, if anything, a distraction—a distraction from the chief end of humans. Because humans have been given reason, and because reason necessarily leads to the pursuit of a good will, then accordingly the pursuit of a good will must be the desired end.

After establishing this primary point, Kant goes on to explain what is meant by a good will. Although right actions are the basis of a good will, the actions themselves must be free from hypothetical imperatives, or any motive that could be attributed to selfish action. If a person were to give money to a charity, he must do so in a way that does not bring glory to himself lest that glory be the end result rather than a good will. This seems to contract Machiavelli’s emphasis on appearance only, or the end result, because it calls into question the very motive behind the action. Here we reach an essential dilemma—how does one gauge the motive behind an action in order to determine if it is indicative of a good will?

Kant explains away this dilemma through the categorical imperative, “an unconditional moral obligation derived from pure reason.” Unlike the hypothetical imperative which suggests an ulterior motive to the action, the categorical imperative involves actions good in and of themselves. In understanding the categorical imperative, it is necessary to apply it to a series of maxims, or situations, to determine what the right action is. Kant goes through a series of scenarios from suicide to money borrowing and from developing a natural talent to having prosperity while others suffer. In each of these examples he uses the categorical imperative to demonstrate what the right action should be.

Following these examples, Kant expresses the categorical imperative as a sort of self-aware maxim: “Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a universal law.” In order to find out what the “right” action is, put forth the situation as a universal law. If it would be okay for everyone in that same situation, it is the right action. Here the categorical imperative seems to go further than the golden rule—while the golden rule suggests one should act in a way one would want to be acted toward, the categorical imperative suggests that one should act in a way that would be acceptable for everyone in that given situation. The different boils down to motive—the golden rule operates on a selfish motive, while the categorical imperative focuses on innate goodness.

While Kant offers a range of situations in which to test the categorical imperative, I found my own life rife with examples. The very evening in which I finished Kant’s essay was the night before trash pickup in my neighborhood. In my neighborhood we have trash stickers—each can under 50 pounds must be accompanied by an orange sticker purchased for two dollars (cans over 50 pounds require two stickers). A few weeks back I found myself without any stickers, and put the garbage out without one. To my surprise, the cans were emptied. I tried the situation the following week and found the same results. On this evening I was prepared to continue with my experiment when I reflected back on the categorical imperative—what would this situation look like as a universal law? If I purposefully neglect my trash sticker application, I am suggesting that it is acceptable for everyone in my neighborhood to do the same. If everyone does the same, the entire tax system of our neighborhood would be out of balance. In this situation, the “right” action turns out to be buying the sticker. But a lingering question still remains—if the gauge of an action’s goodness hinges upon universal application, and if the universal application suggests positive or negative results, does the action still involve a motive? Kant suggests that the categorical imperative relies upon innate goodness and shuns selfish motive, but does it take into account an accurate understanding of human nature? Part of the joy of the Great Conversation is listening in on the dialogue between the great thinkers, and in this particular situation I would love to hear what Thomas Hobbes has to say.

{ 2 comments }

The Two Year Anniversary of Reading the Great

March 26, 2012
Play

My grandfather is fond of saying that his Sunday paper is now delivered every three days. I’m starting to understand him. As cliché as it may be to lament the fast passing of time, I stand in amazement that it has already been two years since starting the plan of reading through the Great Conversation—an [...]

Read the full article →

“Boats Against the Current”: Society’s Recurring Cycle in Rousseau’s “On the Nature of Inequality”

March 13, 2012
Play

The question at the center of Rousseau’s essay is timeless. Even today, over two hundred years later, we ask why inequality exists. We bewail the chasm between the rich and the poor, we subtly acknowledge the difference between the strong and the weak, and we look dumbly on at the relationship between the master and [...]

Read the full article →

On Compassion: Preservation of the Species in Rousseau’s “On the Origin of Inequality”

March 6, 2012

In order to demonstrate the origin of inequality, Rousseau begins by demonstrating the near absence of inequality in a state of nature. Other than sheer strength of body and constitution, very little separates humans in their natural state. The inequality barely existing in a state of nature grows and is magnified as a result of [...]

Read the full article →

“God is, or He is Not”: Wagering the Infinite in Pascal’s Pensees

February 13, 2012

One of the first questions when entering into a betting relationship is “what’s at stake?” The stakes are often the contingent variable necessary to understand before a reasonable person would entertain a wager of any sort. Perhaps the next question would be “what are the odds?” For Pascal, the answer to the first question is [...]

Read the full article →

Believe or Seek: The Dangers of Doubt in Pascal’s Pensees

February 5, 2012

Somewhere Mortimer Adler is chuckling. To have designed the second year of the reading plan for the Great Conversation to include selections from Lucretius and Aurelius paired with selections from Pascal’s Pensees requires at least some sense of humor, if only imagine the befuddled reader just coming to terms with the epicurean argument of the [...]

Read the full article →

Distractions and Diversions: Masking “Our Feeble and Mortal Condition” in Pascal’s Pensees

January 27, 2012

Coming off of Thomas Hobbes in the reading plan for the Great Conversation, I expected, if only to dampen the dreary hold Leviathan had taken on my soul, a dabble into the innate goodness of humankind coupled with an inspiring formula for achieving happiness. What I received instead was a merciless beating courtesy Blaise Pascal. [...]

Read the full article →

Culling the Seeds: Tasting Good and Evil in Milton’s “Areopagitica”

January 19, 2012

Early in the film The Night Hunter, Robert Mitchum’s preacher character, using his tattooed fingers, dramatically explains the ongoing conflict between good and evil. In a seemingly unrelated scene in Half Nelson, Ryan Gosling’s teacher character explains to his history students that the history of the world hinges on conflict from opposing forces (light and [...]

Read the full article →

The Laws of Nature: A Listing from the First Part of Leviathan

January 10, 2012

Thomas Hobbes, in his “Of Man” section of Leviathan, lists the laws which exist in a natural state—a state which, according to Hobbes, is constantly thwarted by competition, diffidence, or glory. Because of this condition, residents in the state of nature find themselves in a condition of “no arts; no letters; no society; and which [...]

Read the full article →